Maneuver Briefs: Areas IV and V to ACS Standard

Each maneuver on the checkride has a ground lesson before the flight lesson that includes it. The Airplane Flying Handbook states the rule for the performance maneuvers: "initial training for performance maneuvers should always begin with a detailed ground lesson for each maneuver, so that the learner understands the technicalities prior to flight" 1. The same ground lesson works for each maneuver in Areas IV and V.

A brief for one maneuver has five parts:

• the purpose, which is what the maneuver is for
• the setup and configuration, which is flaps, trim and power
• the target speeds, which come from the airplane's own manual
• the ACS standard, which is the tolerance the evaluator grades against
• the common errors the Airplane Flying Handbook lists for that maneuver.

The numbers in a brief come from the airplane's manual, not from a handbook. The Airplane Flying Handbook opens its takeoff chapter with the order of authority: "The manufacturer's recommended procedures pertaining to airplane configuration, airspeeds, and other information relevant to takeoffs and departure climbs in a specific make and model airplane are contained in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)-approved Airplane Flight Manual and/or Pilot's Operating Handbook (AFM/POH) for that airplane. If any of the information in this chapter differs from the airplane manufacturer's recommendations as contained in the AFM/POH, the airplane manufacturer's recommendations take precedence" 2. Read the technique in the handbook and the numbers in the manual.

The normal takeoff

Normal takeoff configuration is the airplane manufacturer's. The pilot sets it before the airplane moves onto the runway. The Airplane Flying Handbook: "All run-up and pre-takeoff checklist items should be completed before taxiing onto the runway or takeoff area. As a minimum before every takeoff, all engine instruments should be checked for proper and usual indications, and all controls should be checked for full, free, and correct movement" 3. The ACS asks about the configuration as a knowledge element of the normal takeoff Task 4.

The Warrior's manual names eleven items just before takeoff. Four of them are configuration 5:

• flaps set
• mixture set
• trim tab set
• controls free.

The manual then gives the setting and the technique: "Takeoffs are normally made with flaps up," the trim tab "slightly aft of neutral with the exact setting determined by the loading of the airplane," and the airplane accelerated "to 50 to 60 miles per hour, then ease back on the wheel enough to let the airplane fly itself from the ground."

Flaps up is the Warrior's normal setting and 25 degrees is its short-field and soft-field setting. The manual gives one sentence for both cases: "for short field takeoffs and for takeoffs under difficult conditions such as deep grass or a soft surface, distances can be reduced appreciably by lowering the flaps to 25 degrees and rotating at lower airspeeds" 5. The pilot chooses the setting on the ground, because after full power the pilot must fly the airplane.

The short-field takeoff starts at the beginning of the usable runway. The Airplane Flying Handbook: "Taking off from a short field requires the takeoff to be started from the very beginning of the takeoff area. At this point, the airplane is aligned with the intended takeoff path. If the airplane manufacturer recommends the use of flaps, they are extended the proper amount before beginning the takeoff roll" 6. The ACS grades the same thing: "Clear the area, taxi into takeoff position, and align the airplane on the runway centerline utilizing maximum available takeoff area" 4. Runway used to line up is not available to the takeoff roll.

The Warrior's short-field configuration is 25 degrees of flap 7. The pilot lowers the flaps before the roll begins, for the reason the handbook gives: it "allows the pilot to devote full attention to the proper technique and the airplane's performance throughout the takeoff" 6.

Brakes, power, engine, release

The pilot proves the engine before the roll begins. The ACS grades two skills in order: "Apply brakes while setting engine power to achieve maximum performance" and "Confirm takeoff power prior to brake release and verify proper engine and flight instrument indications prior to rotation" 4. The Warrior's manual says the same in four words: "Apply full power before brake release" 7.

The Airplane Flying Handbook does not confirm that holding the brakes shortens the ground roll. It says: "Some pilots prefer to hold the brakes until the maximum obtainable engine revolutions per minute (rpm) are achieved before allowing the airplane to begin its takeoff run. However, it has not been established that this procedure results in a shorter takeoff run in all light, single-engine airplanes" 8. The manual governs under the handbook's own precedence rule and the ACS grades the skill, so a Warrior pilot holds the brakes. The engine check applies in both procedures. A pilot who finds a rough magneto during the power check taxis back to the ramp. The same fault at 300 feet above the ground causes an engine failure after takeoff.

The two speeds

The pilot rotates at the manual's speed and holds the obstacle-clearance speed until the obstacle is behind the airplane. The Warrior: "Accelerate to 66 MPH CAS and rotate, maintaining 66 MPH CAS until obstacle clearance has been attained. After the obstacle has been cleared accelerate to 87 miles per hour and then slowly retract the flaps" 7. The manual drops the letters on the second figure and states the convention once, in its Airspeed Data section: "All airspeeds quoted in this manual are calibrated unless otherwise noted" 9. Both figures are calibrated miles per hour.

The ACS tolerance on each of the two speeds is plus 10 and minus 5 knots. The obstacle-clearance speed is held "until the obstacle is cleared or until the airplane is 50 feet above the surface," and the airplane accelerates to VY "after clearing the obstacle or at 50 feet AGL if simulating an obstacle" 4. The obstacle decides it when there is one, and 50 feet stands in when the evaluator simulates it. Below the obstacle-clearance speed the climb angle is worse, not better. The handbook: "an attempt to pull the airplane off the ground prematurely, or to climb too steeply, may cause the airplane to settle back to the runway or make contact with obstacles. Even if the airplane remains airborne, until the pilot reaches V X, the initial climb will remain flat" 6.

The pilot retracts nothing until the obstacles are behind the airplane. The handbook: "the landing gear and flaps should remain in takeoff position until the airplane is clear of obstacles (or as recommended by the manufacturer) and V Y has been established. Until all obstacles have been cleared, the pilot should maintain focus outside the airplane instead of reaching for landing gear or flap controls" 10. The flaps then come up in increments, because a single full retraction drops the lift at once.

The soft-field takeoff uses the manufacturer's flap setting and back pressure from the start of the roll. The Warrior: "Lower the flaps to 25 degrees. Accelerate airplane, lift nose gear off as soon as possible, and lift off at lowest possible airspeed" 11. The Airplane Flying Handbook gives the control input in terms of the result: "As the airplane accelerates, the pilot should apply enough back-elevator pressure to establish a positive AOA and to reduce the weight supported by the nose-wheel" 12. Enough back pressure to lift the nosewheel is the input. Neither document specifies full aft control travel.

The purpose of the nose-high attitude is to move the airplane's weight onto the wings. The handbook: "the pilot should transfer the support of the airplane's weight as rapidly as possible from the wheels to the wings as the takeoff roll proceeds by establishing and maintaining a relatively high AOA or nose-high pitch attitude as early as possible" 13. A wheel in soft surface produces drag and a wing produces lift, so the transfer shortens the roll. The ACS makes it a knowledge element of its own: "Importance of weight transfer from wheels to wings" 14.

Stopping on the soft surface is its own hazard. The handbook: "The pilot should maintain a continuous motion with sufficient power while lining up for the takeoff roll as stopping on a soft surface, such as mud or snow, might bog the airplane down" 13. The airplane rolls from the taxiway onto the surface and keeps rolling.

Level off inside ground effect

The airplane leaves the surface below climb speed and stays in ground effect to accelerate. The handbook: "After the airplane becomes airborne, the pilot should gently lower the nose with the wheels clear of the surface to allow the airplane to accelerate to a minimum safe climb out speed." It then gives the limit: "it is essential that the airplane remain in ground effect until at least V X is reached" 12. The Warrior's soft-field procedure gives the same two speeds as its short-field one: "Accelerate just above the ground to 66 MPH CAS to climb past obstacle clearance height. Continue climbing while accelerating to the best rate of climb speed, 87 miles per hour, and slowly retract the flaps." With no obstacle ahead, the airplane accelerates "just above the ground to the best rate of climb speed, 87 miles per hour" 11.

Ground effect lets an airplane fly before it can climb. The handbook: "Due to the reduced drag in ground effect, the airplane may seem to be able to take off below the recommended airspeed. However, as the airplane climbs out of ground effect below the recommended climb speed, initial climb performance will be much less than at V Y or even V X. Under conditions of high density altitude, high temperature, and/or maximum gross weight, the airplane may be able to lift off but will be unable to climb out of ground effect. Consequently, the airplane may not be able to clear obstructions" 15. An airplane pitched up out of ground effect below climb speed settles back toward the surface at full power.

The soft-field landing keeps the airplane's weight on the wings for as long as the pilot can hold it there. The Airplane Flying Handbook: "the objective is to touch down as smoothly as possible and at the slowest possible landing speed. A pilot needs to control the airplane in a manner that the wings support the weight of the airplane as long as practical to minimize stresses imposed on the landing gear by a rough surface or to prevent sinking into a soft surface" 16. The pilot keeps power on through the level-off and the touchdown. That practice is the difference between this landing and a normal one.

After the main wheels touch, the pilot holds the nosewheel off and the airplane keeps moving. The handbook: "In nose-wheel type airplanes, after the main wheels touch the surface, the pilot should hold sufficient back-elevator pressure to keep the nose-wheel off the surface. Using back-elevator pressure and engine power, the pilot can control the rate at which the weight of the airplane is transferred from the wings to the wheels." It also excludes the brakes: "The use of brakes on a soft field is not needed and should be avoided," and "an increase in power may be needed to keep the airplane moving and from becoming stuck in the soft surface" 16. The ACS grades the rollout on the same fact: exit the soft area "at a speed that would preclude sinking into the surface" 14.

The Warrior's manual gives the same technique for short and slow landings: "use full flap and enough power to maintain the desired airspeed and approach flight path. Reduce the airspeed during flareout and contact the ground at close to stalling speed. After ground contact hold the nose wheel off as long as possible" 17.

The short-field approach

The pilot flies the short-field approach to a chosen point, at the manual's speed. The handbook: "The short-field approach and landing is an accuracy approach to an aiming point," and where the manufacturer gives no speed, "a speed of not more than 1.3 V SO is used. In gusty air, no more than one-half the gust factor is added" 18. The 1.3 VSO figure is the fallback, and the Warrior is not a fallback case. Its manual publishes a speed: "The airplane should be trimmed to an approach speed of about 80 MPH with flaps up. The flaps can be lowered at speeds up to 115 MPH, if desired, and the approach speed reduced 3 MPH for each additional notch of flaps" 17. The manufacturer's published speed governs, so the Warrior pilot flies 80 MPH and takes 3 MPH off for each notch.

Extra speed becomes float, and float adds landing distance. The handbook: "An excessive amount of airspeed could result in a touchdown too far from the runway threshold or an after-landing roll that exceeds the available landing area," and "A lack of floating during the flare with sufficient control to touch down properly is verification that the approach speed was correct" 18. Float is how a pilot learns the approach speed was too high. The float itself uses runway.

The ACS grades the point and the float together: touch down "within 200 feet beyond or on the specified point, threshold markings, or runway numbers, with no side drift, minimum float, and with the airplane's longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway centerline" 19. Touchdown itself is at the minimum controllable airspeed, in the pitch attitude that gives a power-off stall when the pilot closes the throttle 18.

The flight of N22307

On June 28, 2021, a flight instructor and a student pilot suffered serious injuries at a private grass strip near Bentleyville, Pennsylvania. Their Cessna 150H became airborne, did not climb, and struck the runway about 100 feet from the trees at the departure end. The impact substantially damaged the fuselage and wings. The NTSB found no mechanical failure. The two were preparing for the student's private pilot checkride 20.

The airplane was a 1968 Cessna 150H with a 100 horsepower Continental O-200A and a certificated maximum gross weight of 1,600 pounds. The student was 29 and had 107 hours, all of them in that make and model. He flew 21 hours in the previous 90 days and 3 hours in the previous 30 days. The instructor sat in the right seat and held commercial and flight instructor certificates with single-engine, multi-engine and instrument airplane ratings 20.

The strip and the day

The strip was private, grass, 1,720 feet long and 75 feet wide, at a field elevation of 1,114 feet. The NTSB recorded the surface as dry with vegetation. The nearest weather observation was 13 nautical miles west at 18:56 local 20. It gave:

• clear skies and 10 miles of visibility
• wind from 210 degrees at 5 knots
• an altimeter setting of 30.22 inches
• a temperature of 31 degrees C and a dew point of 20 degrees C.

Neither pilot opened the chart in the airplane's own manual. The NTSB: "The student pilot reported that they did not complete performance calculations prior to the takeoff. Takeoff performance calculations based on the takeoff distance chart in the airplane owner's manual revealed that a ground roll of about 1,022 ft and a takeoff distance of about 1,792 ft was required to clear a 50-ft obstacle at the airplane's maximum allowable gross weight" 20. The strip was 1,720 feet long. There were trees at the departure end, so the figure that applied was the one over a 50-foot obstacle. That figure was 72 feet longer than the whole runway. The ground roll of 1,022 feet fitted inside the strip, which is why the airplane became airborne. Both figures are the chart's numbers at maximum allowable gross weight, and the NTSB did not record what the airplane weighed that evening.

The configuration

The airplane took off with 10 degrees of flap. The NTSB: "the student pilot taxied back and prepared to take off with 10 degrees of flaps," and "The chart (and the checklist procedure) indicated that the maximum performance takeoff was to be performed with the flaps in the retracted position" 20. The flap setting they used was not the chart's setting and not the checklist's setting.

The student's last memory was that the airplane did not climb. He attributed it to "low airspeed in [the] high heat [and] high humidity" 20. The NTSB determined the probable cause to be "The flight instructor and student pilot's inadequate preflight performance planning which resulted in a takeoff attempt with insufficient available runway, a loss of control, and impact with terrain" 20.

Four decisions

The takeoff they flew has a standard brief, and neither pilot gave it. Four decisions preceded the impact. A different decision at any one of them would have ended the flight safely.

The strip. They landed a 100 horsepower airplane at a 1,720-foot grass strip on a 31 degree C evening. That landing committed them to a takeoff from the same strip. A brief for a landing at an unfamiliar short strip includes the departure, because the airplane must leave from that strip.

The number. Neither pilot made a performance calculation 20. The chart was in the airplane. The Airplane Flying Handbook states when the pilot makes that calculation: "Before going to the airplane, the pilot should check the POH/AFM performance charts to determine the predicted performance and decide if the airplane is capable of a safe takeoff and climb for the conditions and location. High density altitudes reduce engine and propeller performance, increase takeoff rolls, and decrease climb performance" 21. The answer, 1,792 feet over the trees against 1,720 feet of runway, was available on the ground.

The configuration. Ten degrees of flap was neither the chart's configuration nor the checklist's 20. A brief states the flap setting before the airplane moves. A pilot who says the setting out loud can compare it against the chart.

The climb. The airplane became airborne and did not climb. The handbook describes that condition. At high temperature and maximum gross weight, an airplane can lift off in ground effect and be unable to climb out of it 15. A rejected takeoff has a point on the runway, chosen before the roll, at which the airplane must be flying. The handbook: "Prior to takeoff, the pilot should identify a point along the runway at which the airplane should be airborne" 22.

An instructor sat in the right seat and a student prepared for a checkride. The NTSB's findings list the performance calculation as two separate entries: "Personnel issues Performance calculations - Student/instructed pilot" and "Personnel issues Performance calculations - Instructor/check pilot" 20.

A forward slip loses altitude without gaining airspeed. The Airplane Flying Handbook: "Intentional slips, however, are used to dissipate altitude without increasing airspeed and/or to adjust airplane ground track during a crosswind. Intentional slips are especially useful in forced landings and in situations where obstacles need to be cleared during approaches to confined areas. A slip can also be used as a means of rapidly reducing airspeed in situations where wing flaps are inoperative or not installed" 23. The ACS knowledge element asks the same question: "When and why a forward slip approach is used during an approach" 24.

The mechanism is drag, and a reduced vertical component of lift. The handbook: "Slips are characterized by a marked increase in drag and corresponding decrease in airplane climb, cruise, and glide performance. Because the airplane is banked, the vertical component of lift is reduced allowing for an airplane in a slip to descend rapidly without an increase in airspeed" 25. The bank angle sets the sink rate: "The steeper the bank, the steeper the descent."

The pilot holds the airspeed with the elevator and the power stays at idle. The handbook: "In order to use the maneuver to lose altitude, power is normally reduced to idle. The pilot controls airspeed using elevator control" 25. The ACS calls that technique energy management and makes it the Task's first knowledge element 24.

Which wing goes down

In a crosswind the upwind wing goes down. The handbook: "When a crosswind is present, the pilot should lower the upwind wing such that the airplane is banked into the crosswind since slipping into the wind makes it easier to remain on the original flightpath" 26. Slipping the other way is on the handbook's own list of common errors for this maneuver: "A slip in the same direction as any crosswind."

Slipping into the wind also leaves the crosswind correction in place. The transition the ACS grades is from the forward slip to a sideslip: "As necessary, correlate crosswind with direction of forward slip and transition to side slip before touchdown" 24. The wing is already down on the correct side, so the transition is a change of rudder rather than a reversal of bank.

Straight before the wheels touch

The pilot removes the slip at the round out and the airplane touches down aligned. The handbook: "At the appropriate time, when the round out begins, the pilot removes the forward slip and transitions to a normal landing." It also warns against releasing the rudder quickly: "If the pressure on the rudder is released abruptly, the nose swings too quickly into line and the airplane tends to acquire excess speed" 27.

Touching down misaligned loads the landing gear sideways. The ACS names it as a risk element of its own: "Surface contact with the airplane's longitudinal axis misaligned" 24. The handbook gives the size of the load: "As little as 10 degrees of cornering angle creates a side load equal to half the supported weight" It also names the outcome: "tire side load from runway contact while drifting may generate a 'roll-over' in a tricycle-geared airplane. This occurs when one main wheel lifts up off the ground and the airplane tips forward along the axis between the nose-wheel and the main wheel still on the ground. A roll-over could cause one wingtip or the prop to contact the ground" 28.

A sustained slip can uncover a fuel tank outlet and stop the fuel. The Warrior's manual states the limit and the number: "Prolonged slips or skids which result in excess of 2000 feet of altitude loss, or other radical or extreme maneuvers which could cause uncovering of the fuel outlet must be avoided as fuel flow interruption may occur when tank being used is not full" 29. The limitation applies when the tank in use is not full. A full tank keeps the outlet covered. A tank with an hour of fuel left can uncover it.

The Airplane Flying Handbook gives the same mechanism in general terms: "In some cases slips are limited in duration or by fuel quantity. These limitations are meant to preclude fuel starvation caused when fuel is forced to one side of a tank in uncoordinated flight" 30. Know which tank feeds the engine, and how full it is, before holding a slip.

Slips with the flaps out

Some airplane manuals restrict slips with the flaps extended. The handbook: "For aerodynamic reasons, there may also be recommendations or limitations related to slips with flaps extended. Consult the manufacturer's AFM/POH for specific airplane information" 30. The ACS names the mechanism the evaluator asks about: "Forward slip operations, including fuel flowage, tail stalls with flaps, and airspeed control" 24.

The Warrior's 1974 manual carries no limitation on slips with the flaps extended 29. Other types do, and some carry a placard about it. The answer differs by airplane. The ACS asks the question and the handbook directs the pilot to the manual.

The airspeed indicator in a slip

The airspeed indicator can read wrong in a slip. The handbook: "Because of the location of the pitot tube and static vents, airspeed indicators in some airplanes may have considerable error when the airplane is in a slip. The pilot needs to be aware of this possibility and recognize a properly performed slip by the attitude of the airplane, the sound of the airflow, and the feel of the flight controls" 31. The handbook lists "Reacting to erroneous airspeed indications" as a common error of the forward slip to a landing 26.

The attitude is the more reliable of the two indications in a slip. The pilot flies the known pitch attitude, listens to the airflow, feels the controls, and treats the airspeed indication as a cross-check.

The go-around starts with full power and a pitch attitude that stops the descent. The Airplane Flying Handbook sets the order: "The proper execution of a go-around maneuver includes three cardinal principles: 1. Power 2. Attitude 3. Configuration." On the first: "Power is the pilot's first concern. The instant a pilot decides to go around, full or maximum allowable takeoff power should be applied smoothly, without hesitation, and held until flying speed and controllability are restored. An airplane that is settling toward the ground has inertia that needs to be overcome, and sufficient power is needed to stop the descent" 32. The pilot applies power smoothly, because abrupt throttle movement can make some engines falter.

The airplane still carries approach trim when the pilot adds go-around power. The handbook: "At the time a pilot decides to go around, a trim setting for low airspeed is in place. The sudden addition of power tends to raise the airplane's nose and causes left yaw. Allowing the nose to rise too early could result in an unrecoverable stall when the go-around occurs at a low altitude. The pilot should anticipate the need for considerable forward elevator pressure to hold the nose level or in a safe climb attitude" 33. The go-around brief states the control input, which is forward elevator pressure applied as the pilot adds power.

Nothing else moves until the descent stops. The handbook: "On airplanes that produce high control pressures when using maximum power on go-arounds, the pilot should use caution when reaching for the flap handle. Airplane control is the first consideration during this high-workload phase" 33.

The flaps come up in stages

Flap retraction follows the climb attitude, not the power. The handbook: "After establishing the proper climb attitude and power settings, the pilot's next concern is flap retraction. After the descent has been stopped, the landing flaps are partially retracted or placed in the takeoff position as recommended by the manufacturer. Depending on the airplane's altitude and airspeed, it is wise to retract the flaps intermittently in small increments to allow time for the airplane to accelerate progressively as they are being raised. A sudden and complete retraction of the flaps could cause a loss of lift resulting in the airplane settling into the ground" 34.

The ACS grades the sequence in two skill elements. The first: "Apply takeoff power immediately and transition to climb pitch attitude for VX or VY as appropriate +10/-5 knots." The second: "Configure the airplane after a positive rate of climb has been verified or in accordance with airplane manufacturer's instructions" 35. Power application and airplane configuration are also two separate risk elements the evaluator can ask about.

A steep turn begins with a clear area and ends on the entry heading. The Airplane Flying Handbook: "Before starting any practice maneuver, the pilot ensures that the area is clear of air traffic and other hazards. Further, distant references should be chosen to allow the pilot to assess when to begin rollout from the turn. After establishing the manufacturer's recommended entry speed, V A, or V O, as applicable, the airplane should be smoothly rolled into a predetermined bank angle between 45 degrees and 60 degrees" 36. The ACS requires three things 37:

• 45 degrees of bank
• a full 360 degrees of turn
• the same turn in the other direction when the evaluator asks.

The pilot applies back pressure and power before 30 degrees of bank. The handbook: "As the bank angle is being established, generally prior to 30 degrees of bank, elevator back pressure should be smoothly applied to increase the AOA and power should be added. Pilots should keep in mind that as the AOA increases, so does drag, and additional power allows the airplane to maintain airspeed" 36. The load factor is 1.41 at 45 degrees of bank and 2.0 at 60, and the stalling speed rises with it 38.

The Warrior is approved for steep turns only in the utility category. Its flight manual lists them: "Utility Category - Approved maneuvers for Utility Category only: Steep Turns, Lazy Eights, Chandelles, entry speed 124 MPH," and the baggage door carries the placard "UTILITY CATEGORY OPERATION - NO BAGGAGE OR AFT PASSENGERS ALLOWED" 39. Loading for steep turns happens before the flight, not in the practice area.

The rollout lead

The rollout begins before the entry heading. The handbook: "A good rule of thumb is to begin the rollout at 1/2 the number of degrees of bank prior to reaching the terminating heading. For example, if a right steep turn was begun on a heading of 270 degrees and if the bank angle is 60 degrees, the pilot should begin the rollout 30 degrees prior or at a heading of 240 degrees" 40. At 45 degrees of bank the lead is about 22 degrees. The ACS tolerance on the finishing heading is plus or minus 10 degrees 37.

When the nose drops

The pilot corrects altitude loss in a steep turn with the bank first. The handbook: "The pilot can recover from such an altitude loss by first reducing the angle of bank with coordinated use of opposite aileron and rudder and then increasing the pitch attitude by increasing elevator back pressure. Attempting to recover from an excessively nose-low, steep bank condition by using only the elevator causes a steepening of the bank and puts unnecessary stress on the airplane" 41. Pulling harder at 45 degrees of bank tightens the turn and loads the airframe.

The handbook names altitude deviation as the primary error of the maneuver. It also names the cause. A pilot who watches only the nose has trouble holding altitude. A pilot who watches the nose and the wings against the horizon holds altitude 41. Overbanking tendency is the underlying mechanism.

Ground reference maneuvers teach a pilot to hold a chosen track over the ground in wind. The Airplane Flying Handbook: "Ground reference maneuvers are the principal flight maneuvers that combine the four fundamentals (straight-and-level, turns, climbs, and descents) into a set of integrated skills that the pilot uses in everyday flight activity. From every takeoff to every landing, a pilot exercises these skills to control the airplane" 42. The rectangular course is the traffic pattern flown around a field, and the ACS carries the relationship as its own knowledge element 43.

The evaluator picks the maneuver on the day. The ACS Task covers "a rectangular course, S-turns, and turns around a point," and the note reads: "The evaluator selects at least one ground reference maneuver for the applicant to demonstrate" 43. The pilot briefs all three. The entry for the rectangular course is 45 degrees to the downwind leg, between 600 and 1,000 feet above the ground. The tolerance is 100 feet of altitude and 10 knots of airspeed.

Bank follows groundspeed

The bank angle in a ground reference turn follows the groundspeed. The handbook: "As groundspeed increases, the observed radius of the turn increases. Conversely, as groundspeed decreases, the radius of the turn over the ground will decrease. For a ground-referenced constant-radius turn, the pilot compensates for changes in groundspeed by varying the bank angle throughout the turn. When groundspeed increases, the pilot banks more steeply to maintain a constant-radius turn over the ground. The converse is also true: when groundspeed decreases, the pilot uses a shallower bank" 44. Groundspeed is highest downwind and lowest upwind, so the steepest bank occurs in the turn off the downwind leg.

The pilot holds the straight segments by angling into the wind. The handbook: "the preferred method of correcting for wind drift is to angle the airplane sufficiently into the wind to cancel the effect of the sideways drift caused by the wind," and the pilot finds the angle by eye: "pilots do not calculate the required drift correction angles for ground reference maneuvers; they merely use the references and adjust the airplane's relationship to those references to cancel any drift" 45.

The pilot enters the maneuver downwind. The handbook: "The entry into the maneuver should be accomplished downwind. This places the wind on the tail of the airplane and results in an increased groundspeed. [...] The turn from the downwind leg onto the base leg is entered with a relatively steep bank angle" 46. The four turns of the rectangular course are steep, medium, shallow and medium in that order, so the steepest turn comes first.

Where the attention goes

Division of attention is the graded risk of both Area V Tasks. The ACS lists it identically under steep turns and under ground reference maneuvers: "Division of attention between aircraft control and orientation" 37. It is also a graded skill: "Divide attention between airplane control, traffic avoidance and the ground track while maintaining coordinated flight" 43.

Fixation on the reference is the named error. The handbook: "It is a common error for beginning pilots to fixate on a specific reference, such as a single location on the ground or a spot on the natural horizon. A pilot fixating on any one reference loses the ability to determine rate, which significantly degrades a pilot's performance. By visually scanning across several references, the pilot learns how to determine the rate of closure to a specific point" 47. The pilot flies the airplane by attitude and checks the reference in glances.

The handbook sets the altitude band for these maneuvers at 600 to 1,000 feet above the ground, and gives reasons for both ends. One reason is engine failure: "In the event of an engine failure, lower altitudes equate to less time to configure the airplane and reduced gliding distance before a forced landing" 48. The pilot flies these maneuvers low, in a turn, and looks outside.